| An Introduction to Regional Economics电子书 contest Edgar M. Hoover and Frank Giarratani 1 Edgar M. Hoover and Frank Giarratani 1 1 Introduction 1 1.1 WHAT IS REGIONAL ECONOMICS? 1 1.2 THREE FOUNDATION STONES 1 1.3 REGIONAL ECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND THE PLAN OF THIS BOOK 2 SELECTED READINGS 3 ENDNOTES 3 2 Individual Location Decisions 3 2.1 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS AND LOCATION UNITS 3 2.2 OBJECTIVES AND PROCEDURES FOR LOCATION CHOICE 4 2.3 LOCATION FACTORS 5 2.3.1 Local Inputs and Outputs 5 2.3.2 Transferable Inputs and Outputs 6 2.3.3 Classification of Location Factors 6 2.3.4 The Relative Importance of Location Factors 6 2.4 SPATIAL PATTERNS OF DIFFERENTIAL ADVANTAGE IN SPECIFIC LOCATION FACTORS 8 2.5 TRANSFER ORIENTATION 9 2.6 LOCATION AND THE THEORY OF PRODUCTION 12 2.7 SCALE ECONOMIES AND MULTIPLE MARKETS OR SOURCES 13 2.8 SOME OPERATIONAL SHORTCUTS 13 2.9 SUMMARY 14 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 15 SELECTED READINGS 15 ENDNOTES 16 3 Transfer Costs 17 3.1 INTRODUCTION 17 3.2 SOME ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFER OPERATIONS 17 3.3 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF TRANSFER COSTS AND RATES 18 3.3.1 Route Systems and Service Points 18 3.3.2 Long-Haul Economies 18 3.3.3 Transfer Costs and Rates 19 3.3.4 Time Costs in Transfer 21 3.4 LOCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFER RATES 21 3.4.1 Effects of Limited Route Systems and Service Points 22 3.4.2 General Locational Effect of Transfer Rates Rising Less than Proportionally with Distance 22 3.4.3 Modal Interchange Locations 23 3.5 SOME RECENT DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING THE STRUCTURE OF TRANSFER COSTS 23 3.5.1 Introduction 23 3.5.2 Higher Energy Prices and the Pattern of Industrial Location 24 3.5.3 Technological Change in Data Processing and Transmission 25 3.6 Summary 26 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 26 SELECTED READINGS 26 APPENDIX 3-1 27 Rate Discrimination by a Transfer Monopolist 27 ENDNOTES 27 4 Location Patterns Dominated by Dispersive Forces 28 4.1 INTRODUCTION 28 4.1.1 Unit Locations and the Pattern of an Activity 28 4.1.3 Some Basic Factors Contributing to Dispersed Patterns 29 4.2 MARKET AREAS 29 4.2.1 Introduction 29 4.2.2 The Market Area of a Spatial Monopolist 29 4.2.3 Market-Area Patterns 31 4.3 SOME ASPECTS OF SPATIAL PRICING POLICY AND MARKET AREAS 31 4.3.1 Market-Area Overlap 31 4.3.2 Spatial Price Discrimination 32 4.3.3 Pricing Policy and Spatial Competition 33 4.4 COMPETITION AND LOCATION DECISIONS 34 4.5 MARKET AREAS AND THE CHOICE OF LOCATIONS 35 4.5.1 The Location Pattern of a Transfer-Oriented Activity 35 4.5.2 Transfer Orientation and the Patterns of Nonbusiness Activities 35 4.6 SUMMARY 36 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 36 SELECTED READINGS 36 APPENDIX 4-1 36 Conditions Determining the Existence and Size of Market Areas 36 This reduces to 37 ENDNOTES 37 5 Location Patterns Dominated by Cohesion 39 5.1 INTRODUCTION 39 5.2 EXTERNAL ECONOMIES: OUTPUT VARIETY AND MARKET ATTRACTION 39 5.3 EXTERNAL ECONOMIES: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION PROCESS 40 5.3.1 Introduction 40 5.3.2 External Economies and Scale 40 5.3.3 Lichtenberg’s Study of "External-Economy Industries" 41 5.4 SINGLE-ACTIVITY CLUSTERS AND URBANIZATION 43 5.4.1 Introduction 43 5.4.2 Urbanization Economies 43 5.4.3 Measuring Urbanization Economies 44 5.5 MIXED SITUATIONS 45 5.5.1 Attraction plus Repulsion 45 5.5.2 Coexistence of Market Areas and Supply Areas, When Both Sellers and Buyers Are Dispersed 45 5.6 SUMMARY 46 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 46 SELECTED READINGS 46 ENDNOTES 46 6 Land Use 47 6.1 WHAT IS "LAND"? 47 6.2 COMPETITION FOR THE USE OF LAND 48 6.3 AN ACTIVITY’S DEMAND FOR LAND: RENT GRADIENTS AND RENT SURFACES 49 6.3.1 Rent Gradients and Surfaces with Output Orientation 49 6.3.2 Rent Gradients and Rent Surfaces with Input Orientation 50 6.3.3 Rent Gradients and Multiple Access 51 6.4 INTERACTIVITY COMPETITION FOR SPACE 51 6.4.1 A Basic Sequence of Rural Land Uses 51 6.4.2 Activity Characteristics Determining Access Priority and Location 52 6.5 RURAL AND URBAN LAND USE ALLOCATION 52 6.5.1 Some Characteristics of Urban Economic Activity 53 6.5.2 Equilibrium of Land Uses and Rents 54 6.6 RESIDENTIAL LOCATION 54 6.7 RENT AND LAND VALUE 56 6.7.1 Speculative Value of Land 56 6.7.2 Improvements on Land 56 6.8 SUMMARY 56 SELECTED READINGS 57 APPENDIX 6-1 57 Derivation of Formulas for Rent Gradients and Their Slopes 57 ENDNOTES 59 7 The Spatial Structure of Urban Areas 60 7.1 INTRODUCTION 60 7.2 SOME LOCATION FACTORS 60 7.2.1 Independent Locations 60 7.2.2 The Center 61 7.2.3 Neighborhood Externalities 61 7.2.4 Scale Economies and Urban Land Use 61 7.3 SYMMETRICAL MONOCENTRIC MODELS OF URBAN FORM 62 7.3.1 Bases of Simplification 62 7.4 DIFFERENTIATION BY SECTORS 64 7.6 EXPLAINING URBAN FORM 65 7.7 CHANGES IN URBAN PATTERNS 65 7.7.1 General Effects of Urban Growth 66 7.7.2 Changes in Density Gradients for Major Types of Urban Activity 67 7.7.3 Location of Commodity-Exporting Activities 67 7.7.4 Location of Administrative and Other Information-Processing Activities 69 7.7.5 Residential Location 70 7.7.6 Location of Consumer-Serving Activities 71 7.8 SUMMARY 72 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 72 Monocentric urban models 72 SELECTED READINGS 72 ENDNOTES 73 8 The Location of Urban Places 75 8.1 INTRODUCTION 75 8.2 THE FORMATION OF A SYSTEM OF CITIES 75 8.2.1 Some Simplifying Assumptions 75 8.2.2 Shapes of Trading Areas 75 8.2.3 A Hierarchy of Trading Areas 76 8.2.4 Some Practical limitations 77 8.2.5 Generalized Areas of Urban Influence 77 8.3 TRADE CENTERS IN AN AMERICAN REGION-THE UPPER MIDWEST STUDY 78 8.4 ACTIVITIES EXTRANEOUS TO THE CENTRAL—PLACE HIERARCHY 78 8.5 TRENDS IN URBAN PATTERNS 80 SELECTED READINGS 83 APPENDIX 8-1 83 Trading-Area Boundaries Under Reilly’s Law see link 83 Reilly’s Law may now be stated as 83 APPENDIX 8-2 84 ENDNOTES 84 9 Regions 86 9.1 THE NATURE OF A REGION 86 9.2 DELIMITING FUNCTIONAL REGIONS 88 9.3 RELATIONS OF ACTIVITIES WITHIN A REGION 88 9.3.1 Vertical Relationships 88 9.3.2 Horizontal Relationships 89 9.3.3 Complementary Relationships 89 9.4 REGIONAL SPECIALIZATION 90 9.4.1 A Classification of U.S. Metropolitan Regions 90 9.4.2 Some Quantitative Measures of Specialization and Concentration 91 9.5 SUMMARY 91 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 92 Homogeneous region 92 ENDNOTES 92 10 The Location of People 93 10.1 INTRODUCTION 93 10.2 A LOOK AT SOME DIFFERENTIALS 93 10.2.1 Differentials in Pay Levels 93 10.2.2 Income Differentials 94 10.2.3 Differentials in Living Costs and Real Income 94 10.3 THE SUPPLY OF LABOR AT A LOCATION 94 10.3.1 Work Location Preferences and Labor Mobility 94 10.3.2 Who Migrates: Why, When, and Where? 95 10.4 LABOR ORIENTATION: THE DEMAND FOR LABOR AT A LOCATION 99 10.5 THE RATIONALE OF LABOR COST DIFFERENTIALS 100 10.5.1 Where Are Labor Costs Low? 100 10.5.2 Indirect Advantages of Labor Quality 101 10.5.3 Institutional Constraints on Wages and Labor Costs 101 10.5.4 Complementary Labor 102 10.6 LABOR COST DIFFERENTIALS AND EMPLOYER LOCATIONS WITHIN AN URBAN LABOR MARKET AREA 102 10.7 SUMMARY 103 TECHNICAL TERMS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 104 Spatial mobility 104 ENDNOTES 105 11 How Regions Develop 106 11.1 SOME BASIC TRENDS AND QUESTIONS 107 11.1.1 Relative Regional Growth in Population 107 11.1.2 Regional Trends in Per Capita Income 107 11.1.3 Regional Structural Changes 108 11.2 WHAT CAUSES REGIONAL GROWTH? 109 11.2.1 Self-Reinforcing and Self-Limiting Effects 109 11.2.2 Demand and Supply as Determinants of Regional Development 109 11.3 THE ROLE OF DEMAND 109 11.3.1 Economic Base Theory and Studies 109 11.3.2 Regional Input-Output Analysis 111 11.4 THE ROLE OF SUPPLY 113 11.5 INTERREGIONAL TRADE AND FACTOR MOVEMENTS 114 11.5.1 Mobility of Labor and Capital Among Regions 114 11.6 INTERREGIONAL CONVERGENCE 115 11.7 THE ROLE OF CITIES IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT 117 11.8 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS IN REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT 118 11.9 SUMMARY 118 APPENDIX 11-1 119 Further Explanation of Basic Steps in Input-Output Analysis 119 APPENDIX 11-2 120 Example of an Input-Output Table with Households Included as an Endogenous Activity 120 ENDNOTES 121 12 Regional Objectives and Policies 123 12.1 THE GROWING CONCERN WITH REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT 123 12.2 OBJECTIVES 125 12.2.1 Individual and Social Welfare Criteria 125 12.2.2 Regional Economic Growth as a Goal 126 12.2.3 Regional Objectives in a National Setting 126 12.3 REGIONAL PATHOLOGY: THE EMERGENCE OF "PROBLEM AREAS" 128 12.3.1 Backward Regions 128 12.3.2 Developed Regions in Recession 128 12.3.3 Excessive Growth and Concentration 129 12.3.4 Comparison of Characteristics of Problem Areas 130 12.3.5 Regional Structure and Economic Health 130 12.4 THE AVAILABLE TOOLS 131 12.5 BASIC ISSUES OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 132 12.5.1 The Four Issues 132 12.5.2 Should Jobs Move to People, or People to Jobs? 133 12.6 THE ROLE OF GROWTH CENTERS 134 12.6.1 Applicability of the Growth-Center Strategy to Different Types of Problem Areas 134 12.6.2 Justification for Focusing Employment Stimulus in Growth Centers 135 |
An Introduction to Regional Economics电子书
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